Subclinical thyrotoxicosis in an outpatient population - predictors of outcome.

OBJECTIVE: Individuals with endogenous subclinical thyrotoxicosis (SCT) may subsequently require treatment for overt disease. We aimed to evaluate the frequency of progression to hyperthyroidism and factors influencing this outcome. DESIGN: This is a retrospective analysis of outcome in 96 consecutive patients (aged 16-91 years) diagnosed with SCT over a 6-year period. Individuals with secondary causes of TSH suppression were excluded. Mean follow-up was 3·8 years. The significance of age, gender, family history of thyrotoxicosis, symptoms at presentation, thyroid nodule(s) on clinical examination, entry TSH level, antithyroid antibody status and (99m) Tc pertechnetate thyroid imaging results on subsequent development of overt thyrotoxicosis was assessed. RESULTS: Progression to overt thyrotoxicosis was seen in 8% at 1 year, 16% at 2 years, 21% at 3 years and 26% at 5 years. Multivariate analysis determined that diagnosis as determined by scintiscan to be the only independent predictor of outcome (P = 0·003) with the cumulative percentage requiring therapy at 5 years being 9% for subclinical Graves' disease, 21% for multinodular goitre and 61% for the autonomous nodule subgroup. CONCLUSIONS: Progression of SCT to overt hyperthyroidism occurred at a rate of 5-8% per year with disease aetiology, as determined by thyroid scintigraphy, significantly influencing risk of progression.

Juvenile thyrotoxicosis--a South Island, New Zealand experience with long-term outcome.

AIM: To assess our experience in the management of juvenile thyrotoxicosis. METHOD: Retrospective review of thyroid clinic records of juvenile (<16 y) thyrotoxic (JT) patients treated at thyroid clinic between 1972 and 1999. Long-term (>8 y) treatment outcome was assessed. RESULTS: During the 28-year period, 34 JT patients were diagnosed and treated--30 girls and 4 boys, median age 13 years (5.6-15.9 y). Thirty-two children had Graves' disease and two had toxic nodular goitre. All patients were initially treated with carbimazole, and no major adverse reactions occurred. One Graves' disease child later developed severe ophthalmopathy. During long-term follow-up, 12 of the 32 Graves' patients remain in remission after antithyroid drug treatment alone, but 4 of these 12 patients are currently receiving thyroxine replacement. Fifteen patients were surgically treated (median age 16 y), and six patients received radioiodine therapy (median age 18 y) including one patient with post-thyroidectomy relapse. The two patients with toxic nodular goitre were treated by thyroidectomy. CONCLUSION: Juvenile thyrotoxicosis is relatively rare and not always due to Graves' disease. More than a third of children with Graves' disease achieved long-term remission following antithyroid drug therapy, and remaining patients required definitive therapy.

Jasmonate and phytochrome A signaling in Arabidopsis wound and shade responses are integrated through JAZ1 stability.

Jasmonate (JA) activates plant defense, promotes pollen maturation, and suppresses plant growth. An emerging theme in JA biology is its involvement in light responses; here, we examine the interdependence of the JA- and light-signaling pathways in Arabidopsis thaliana. We demonstrate that mutants deficient in JA biosynthesis and signaling are deficient in a subset of high irradiance responses in far-red (FR) light. These mutants display exaggerated shade responses to low, but not high, R/FR ratio light, suggesting a role for JA in phytochrome A (phyA) signaling. Additionally, we demonstrate that the FR light-induced expression of transcription factor genes is dependent on CORONATINE INSENSITIVE1 (COI1), a central component of JA signaling, and is suppressed by JA. phyA mutants had reduced JA-regulated growth inhibition and VSP expression and increased content of cis-(+)-12-oxophytodienoic acid, an intermediate in JA biosynthesis. Significantly, COI1-mediated degradation of JASMONATE ZIM DOMAIN1-beta-glucuronidase (JAZ1-GUS) in response to mechanical wounding and JA treatment required phyA, and ectopic expression of JAZ1-GUS resulted in exaggerated shade responses. Together, these results indicate that JA and phyA signaling are integrated through degradation of the JAZ1 protein, and both are required for plant responses to light and stress.

Arabidopsis 14-3-3 lambda is a positive regulator of RPW8-mediated disease resistance.

The RPW8 locus from Arabidopsis thaliana Ms-0 includes two functional paralogous genes (RPW8.1 and RPW8.2) and confers broad-spectrum resistance via the salicylic acid-dependent signaling pathway to the biotrophic fungal pathogens Golovinomyces spp. that cause powdery mildew diseases on multiple plant species. To identify proteins involved in regulation of the RPW8 protein function, a yeast two-hybrid screen was performed using RPW8.2 as bait. The 14-3-3 isoform lambda (designated GF14lambda) was identified as a potential RPW8.2 interactor. The RPW8.2-GF14lambda interaction was specific and engaged the C-terminal domain of RPW8.2, which was confirmed by pulldown assays. The physiological impact of the interaction was revealed by knocking down GF14lambda by T-DNA insertion, which compromised basal and RPW8-mediated resistance to powdery mildew. In addition, over-expression of GF14lambda resulted in hypersensitive response-like cell death and enhanced resistance to powdery mildew via the salicylic acid-dependent signaling pathway. The results from this study suggest that GF14lambda may positively regulate the RPW8.2 resistance function and play a role in enhancing basal resistance in Arabidopsis.

Wound-induced endogenous jasmonates stunt plant growth by inhibiting mitosis.

When plants are repeatedly injured their growth is stunted and the size of organs such as leaves is greatly reduced. The basis of this effect is not well-understood however, even though it reduces yield of crops injured by herbivory, and produces dramatic effects exemplified in ornamental bonsai plants. We have investigated the genetic and physiological basis of this "bonsai effect" by repeatedly wounding leaves of the model plant Arabidopsis. This treatment stunted growth by 50% and increased the endogenous content of jasmonate (JA), a growth inhibitor, by seven-fold. Significantly, repeated wounding did not stunt the growth of the leaves of mutants unable to synthesise JA, or unable to respond to JA including coi1, jai3, myc2, but not jar1. The stunted growth did not result from reduced cell size, but resulted instead from reduced cell number, and was associated with reduced expression of CycB1;2. Wounding caused systemic disappearance of constitutively expressed JAZ1::GUS. Wounding also activates plant immunity. We show that a gene, 12-oxo-phytodienoate reductase, which catalyses a step in JA biosynthesis, and which we confirm is not required for defence, is however required for wound-induced stunting. Our data suggest that intermediates in the JA biosynthetic pathway activate defence, but a primary function of wound-induced JA is to stunt growth through the suppression of mitosis.

Investigations into plant biochemical wound-response pathways involved in the production of aphid-induced plant volatiles.

Feeding damage to plants by insect herbivores induces the production of plant volatiles, which are attractive to the herbivores natural enemies. Little is understood about the plant biochemical pathways involved in aphid-induced plant volatile production. The aphid parasitoid Diaeretiella rapae can detect and respond to aphid-induced volatiles produced by Arabidopsis thaliana. When given experience of those volatiles, it can learn those cues and can therefore be used as a novel biosensor to detect them. The pathways involved in aphid-induced volatile production were investigated by comparing the responses of D. rapae to volatiles from a number of different transgenic mutants of A. thaliana, mutated in their octadecanoid, ethylene or salicylic acid wound-response pathways and also from wild-type plants. Plants were either undamaged or infested by the peach-potato aphid, Myzus persicae. It is demonstrated that the octadecanoid pathway and specifically the COI1 gene are required for aphid-induced volatile production. The presence of salicylic acid is also involved in volatile production. Using this model system, in combination with A. thaliana plants with single point gene mutations, has potential for the precise dissection of biochemical pathways involved in the production of aphid-induced volatiles.

Stress responses: JAZ players deliver fusion and rhythm.

How do stress-induced jasmonates cause genetic re-programming of plant cells? New research shows that the JAZ proteins provide the missing link.

Expression of the membrane-associated resistance protein RPW8 enhances basal defense against biotrophic pathogens.

The powdery mildew resistance genes RPW8.1 and RPW8.2 from Arabidopsis differ from the other isolated plant resistance (R) genes in their predicted protein domains and their resistance spectrum. The two homologous RPW8 genes encode small proteins featuring a predicted amino-terminal transmembrane anchor domain and a coiled-coil domain and confer resistance to a broad spectrum of powdery mildews. Here, we show that Arabidopsis plants expressing the RPW8 genes have enhanced resistance to another biotrophic pathogen, Hyaloperonospora parasitica, raising the possibility that the RPW8 genes may function to enhance salicylic-acid-dependent basal defenses, rather than as powdery-mildew-specific R genes. When overexpressed from their native promoters, the RPW8 genes confer enhanced resistance to the Cauliflower mosaic virus, but render plants more susceptible to the necrotrophic fungal pathogens Alternaria and Botrytis spp. Furthermore, we show that the RPW8 proteins appear to be localized to the endomembrane system, overlapping with the endoplasmic reticulum-associated small GTPase SAR1, and accumulate to higher levels in response to application of exogenous salicylic acid, one of the signaling molecules of plant defense.

Expression profiling reveals COI1 to be a key regulator of genes involved in wound- and methyl jasmonate-induced secondary metabolism, defence, and hormone interactions.

The Arabidopsis gene COI1 is required for jasmonic acid (JA)-induced growth inhibition, resistance to insect herbivory, and resistance to pathogens. In addition, COI1 is also required for transcription of several genes induced by wounding or by JA. Here, we use microarray gene transcription profiling of wild type and coi1 mutant plants to examine the extent of the requirement of COI1 for JA-induced and wound-induced gene transcription. We show that COI1 is required for expression of approximately 84% of 212 genes induced by JA, and for expression of approximately 44% of 153 genes induced by wounding. Surprisingly, COI1 was also required for repression of 53% of 104 genes whose expression was suppressed by JA, and for repression of approximately 46% of 83 genes whose expression was suppressed by wounding. These results indicate that COI1 plays a pivotal role in wound- and JA signalling.

The atypical resistance gene, RPW8, recruits components of basal defence for powdery mildew resistance in Arabidopsis.

Genetic studies have identified a number of components of signal transduction pathways leading to plant disease resistance and the accompanying hypersensitive response (HR) following detection of pathogens by plant resistance (R) genes. In Arabidopsis, the majority of R proteins so far characterized belong to a plant superfamily that have a central nucleotide-binding site and C-terminal leucine-rich-repeats (NB-LRRs). Another much less prevalent class comprises RPW8.1 and RPW8.2, two related proteins that possess a putative N-terminal transmembrane domain and a coiled-coil motif, and confer broad-spectrum resistance to powdery mildew. Here we investigated whether RPW8.1 and RPW8.2 engage known pathway(s) for defence signalling. We show that RPW8.1 and RPW8.2 recruit, in addition to salicylic acid and EDS1, the other NB-LRR gene-signalling components PAD4, EDS5, NPR1 and SGT1b for activation of powdery mildew resistance and HR. In contrast, NDR1, RAR1 and PBS3 that are required for function of certain NB-LRR R genes, and COI1 and EIN2 that operate, respectively, in the jasmonic acid and ethylene signalling pathways, do not contribute to RPW8.1 and RPW8.2-mediated resistance. We further demonstrate that EDR1, a gene encoding a conserved MAPKK kinase, exerts negative regulation on HR cell death and powdery mildew resistance by limiting the transcriptional amplification of RPW8.1 and RPW8.2. Our results suggest that RPW8.1 and RPW8.2 stimulate a conserved basal defence pathway that is negatively regulated by EDR1.

Origin and maintenance of a broad-spectrum disease resistance locus in Arabidopsis.

The broad-spectrum mildew resistance genes RPW8.1 and RPW8.2 define a unique type of plant disease resistance (R) gene, and so far homologous sequences have been found in Arabidopsis thaliana only, which suggests a recent origin. In addition to RPW8.1 and RPW8.2, the RPW8 locus contains three homologs of RPW8, HR1, HR2, and HR3, which do not contribute to powdery mildew resistance. To investigate whether RPW8 has originated recently, and if so the processes involved, we have isolated and analyzed the syntenic RPW8 loci from Arabidopsis lyrata, and from Brassica rapa and B. oleracea. The A. lyrata locus contains four genes orthologous to HR1, HR2, HR3, and RPW8.2, respectively. Two syntenic loci have been characterized in Brassica; one locus contains three genes and is present in both B. oleracea and B. rapa, and the other locus contains a single gene and is detected in B. rapa only. The Brassica homologs have highest similarity to HR3. Sequence analyses suggested that the RPW8 gene family in Brassicaceae originated from an HR3-like ancestor gene through a series of duplications and that RPW8.1 and RPW8.2 evolved from functional diversification through positive selection several MYA. Examination of the sequence polymorphism of 32 A. thaliana accessions at the RPW8 locus and their disease reaction phenotypes revealed that the polymorphic RPW8 locus defines a major source of resistance to powdery mildew diseases. A possible evolutionary mechanism by which functional polymorphism at the AtRPW8 locus has been maintained in contemporary populations of A. thaliana is discussed.

ECG score predicts those with the greatest percentage of perfusion defects due to acute pulmonary thromboembolic disease.

BACKGROUND: More aggressive management may be warranted for patients with acute pulmonary embolism (PE) and the greatest pulmonary vascular obstruction. We hypothesized that a scoring system based on the ECG might identify such patients. METHODS: Consecutive patients investigated for PE at Christchurch Hospital between 1997 and 2002 with high-probability ventilation/perfusion (V/Q) scan findings were studied. The ECG obtained closest to and within 48 h of the scan was scored by two independent observers, and the mean ECG score was calculated. V/Q scan findings were categorized into those with < 30%, 30 to 50%, and > 50% perfusion defect by two independent observers experienced in V/Q interpretation. A consensus score was taken when disagreement occurred. RESULTS: Two hundred twenty-nine patients were included in the study. The interobserver agreement for ECG score was 0.96 (Cronbach alpha) and V/Q score was 0.55 (kappa). The ECG predicted those with the greatest amount of perfusion defects. Mean ECG score was 2.6 (SD 2.8) in patients with < 30% perfusion defect, 3.2 (SD 2.9) in patients with 30 to 50% perfusion defect, and 5.3 (SD 3.7) in patients with > 50% perfusion defect. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for ECG score and those with > 50% perfusion defect was 0.71 (SE 0.04). An ECG score of > or = 3 predicted those with > 50% perfusion defect with a sensitivity of 70% (95% confidence interval [CI], 59 to 81%), and a specificity of 59% (95% CI, 51 to 67%). CONCLUSION: An ECG score, simple to derive, predicts those with the greatest percentage of perfusion defect. Using the ECG for management warrants prospective evaluation.

Regulation of jasmonate-mediated plant responses in arabidopsis.

Jasmonates (JAs) are signalling molecules that play a key role in the regulation of metabolic processes, reproduction, and defence against pathogens and insects. JAs regulate responses that are both local and systemic, and which are affected by outputs from signalling pathways regulated by ethylene, salicylic acid and auxin. This is a review of recent advances in our understanding of the regulation of JA perception in Arabidopsis thaliana, the different signalling functions of biologically active JAs, the post-translational control of JA responses leading to substantial transcriptional reprogramming, and the influence of other signalling pathways of systemic JA responses.

The Arabidopsis genes RPW8.1 and RPW8.2 confer induced resistance to powdery mildew diseases in tobacco.

Plant disease resistance (R) gene products recognize pathogen avirulence (Avr) gene products and induce defense responses. It is not known if an R gene can function in different plant families, however. The Arabidopsis thaliana R genes RPW8.1 and RPW8.2 confer resistance to the powdery mildew pathogens Erysiphe orontii, E. cichoracearum, and Oidium lycopersici, which also infect plants from other families. We produced transgenic Nicotiana tabacum, N. benthamiana, and Lycopersicon esculentum plants containing RPW8.1 and RPW8.2. Transgenic N. tabacum plants had increased resistance to E. orontii and O. lycopersici, transgenic N. benthamiana plants had increased resistance to E. cichoracearum, but transgenic L. esculentum plants remained susceptible to these pathogens. The defense responses induced in transgenic N. tabacum and N. benthamiana were similar to those mediated by RPW8.1 and RPW8.2 in Arabidopsis. Apparently, RPW8.1 and RPW8.2 could be used to control powdery mildew diseases of plants from other families.

Enhanced transcription of the Arabidopsis disease resistance genes RPW8.1 and RPW8.2 via a salicylic acid-dependent amplification circuit is required for hypersensitive cell death.

The Arabidopsis disease resistance (R) genes RPW8.1 and RPW8.2 couple the recognition of powdery mildew pathogens of this plant with the subsequent induction of a localized necrosis, or hypersensitive response (HR). The HR restricts the spread of the infection and renders the plant resistant. One-third of Arabidopsis plants transformed with a genomic fragment containing RPW8.1 and RPW8.2 developed spontaneous HR-like lesions (SHL) in the absence of pathogens. We demonstrate that SHL occurs in transgenic lines that contain multiple copies of the transgene and express RPW8.1 and RPW8.2 at high levels. SHL is associated with salicylic acid (SA) accumulation, and at the site of the lesion, there is increased expression of RPW8.1, increased production of H(2)O(2), and increased expression of pathogenesis-related genes. These lesions are physiologically similar to the pathogen-induced HR mediated by RPW8.1 and RPW8.2. Significantly, environmental conditions that suppress SHL suppress the transcription of RPW8.1 and RPW8.2 and also suppress resistance to powdery mildews, even in transgenic lines containing RPW8.1 and RPW8.2 that normally do not express SHL. Furthermore, treatment with SA increases the transcription of RPW8.1 and RPW8.2, induces SHL, and enhances resistance to powdery mildews. We conclude that HR requires the transcription of RPW8.1 and RPW8.2, which is regulated independently of the pathogen by SA-dependent feedback amplification.

Constitutive activation of jasmonate signaling in an Arabidopsis mutant correlates with enhanced resistance to Erysiphe cichoracearum, Pseudomonas syringae, and Myzus persicae.

In Arabidopsis spp., the jasmonate (JA) response pathway generally is required for defenses against necrotrophic pathogens and chewing insects, while the salicylic acid (SA) response pathway is generally required for specific, resistance (R) gene-mediated defenses against both biotrophic and necrotrophic pathogens. For example, SA-dependent defenses are required for resistance to the biotrophic fungal pathogen Erysiphe cichoracearum UCSC1 and the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. maculicola, and also are expressed during response to the green peach aphid Myzus persicae. However, recent evidence indicates that the expression of JA-dependent defenses also may confer resistance to E. cichoracearum. To confirm and to extend this observation, we have compared the disease and pest resistance of wild-type Arabidopsis plants with that of the mutants coil, which is insensitive to JA, and cev1, which has constitutive JA signaling. Measurements of the colonization of these plants by E. cichoracearum, P. syringae pv. maculicola, and M. persicae indicated that activation of the JA signal pathway enhanced resistance, and was associated with the activation of JA-dependent defense genes and the suppression of SA-dependent defense genes. We conclude that JA and SA induce alternative defense pathways that can confer resistance to the same pathogens and pests.

COI1 links jasmonate signalling and fertility to the SCF ubiquitin-ligase complex in Arabidopsis.

Jasmonates (JAs) regulate Arabidopsis thaliana wound and defence responses, pollen development, and stress-related growth inhibition. Significantly, each of these responses requires COI1, an F-box protein. Other F-box proteins interact with SKP1 and cullin proteins to form SCF complexes that selectively recruit regulatory proteins targeted for ubiquitination. To determine whether COI1 also functions in an SCF complex, we have characterized Arabidopsis proteins that bind to COI1. An Arabidopsis cDNA expression library was screened in yeast for clones that produce proteins which can bind to COI1. We recovered two SKP1 homologues and a histone deacetylase. The Arabidopsis F-box protein TIR1 interacted with SKP1 proteins, but not with the histone deacetylase. Mutant COI1 proteins revealed that the F-box is required for interaction with SKP1s, but that sequences in leucine-rich repeat domains are required for interaction with the histone deacetylase. Epitope-tagged COI1 was introduced into Arabidopsis plants and cell cultures. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments confirmed the interaction in planta of COI1 with SKP1-like proteins and histone deacetylase, and also indicated that COI1 interacted with cullin. These results suggest that COI1 forms an SCFCOI1 complex in vivo. COI1 is therefore expected to form a functional E3-type ubiquitin ligase in plants and to regulate expression of jasmonate responsive genes, possibly by targeted ubiquitination of a histone deacetylase.

A conditionally fertile coi1 allele indicates cross-talk between plant hormone signalling pathways in Arabidopsis thaliana seeds and young seedlings.

Jasmonates (JAs) regulate Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. wound and defense responses, pollen development, and stress-related growth inhibition. Significantly, each of these responses requires COI1, an F-box protein. We fused firefly luciferase as a reporter to the JA-responsive promoter for the vegetative storage protein gene (VSP) and used this to screen for mutants that failed to express luciferase in the presence of JA, isolating a mutant designated coi1-16. Comparisons with coi1-1 and jar1-1 plants indicated that coi1-16 was only slightly more sensitive to JA than coi1-1 plants. However, whilst coi1-16 plants failed to produce viable pollen at 22 degrees C, they were fertile at 16 degrees C. Therefore, unlike the other coi1 mutants, coi1-16 could be maintained as a pure line and did not require selection. We have used coi1-16 seeds to define novel interactions between JA and other hormone signalling pathways in seed germination and in the development of young seedlings.

The Arabidopsis mutant cev1 links cell wall signaling to jasmonate and ethylene responses.

Biotic and abiotic stresses stimulate the synthesis of jasmonates and ethylene, which, in turn, induce the expression of genes involved in stress response and enhance defense responses. The cev1 mutant has constitutive expression of stress response genes and has enhanced resistance to fungal pathogens. Here, we show that cev1 plants have increased production of jasmonate and ethylene and that its phenotype is suppressed by mutations that interrupt jasmonate and ethylene signaling. Genetic mapping, complementation analysis, and sequence analysis revealed that CEV1 is the cellulose synthase CeSA3. CEV1 was expressed predominantly in root tissues, and cev1 roots contained less cellulose than wild-type roots. Significantly, the cev1 mutant phenotype could be reproduced by treating wild-type plants with cellulose biosynthesis inhibitors, and the cellulose synthase mutant rsw1 also had constitutive expression of VSP. We propose that the cell wall can signal stress responses in plants.